Holy See-China Provisional Agreement

Bigger Historical Picture

The Church is missionary by nature. When Catholic bishops from around the world gathered for the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), they shifted the Church’s focus from the object of faith to the greater discovery of the situation of man, the interlocutor to whom mission is aimed.¹ Therefore, it is essential to know the Chinese situation better when engaging in mission there. Taking a snapshot of the broader context, evangelization had some success when missionaries went to China in the nineteenth and the early twentieth century. However, we cannot deny the fact that it was the colonial period, and they were under the protection of Western powers. The phrase “one more Christian, one less Chinese” was circulated. In recent history, China has suffered “a century of humiliation” at the hands of Western powers and Japan.

Afterwards, even under the People’s Republic of China, there were moments of absolute chaos: the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution, the Tiananmen protests, and so on. As a result, ordinary people are afraid of the repetition of these tragedies. After the reform and opening-up policy of 1979, they see that the People’s Republic of China has a system that provides stability, development, and well-being for ordinary people.

The government has lifted more than 800 million people out of poverty in recent decades. More than 180 million Chinese traveled abroad as tourists in 2019, that is, prior to the pandemic. Instead of calling for notions of rights and freedoms, which are rather individualistic, people also feel the need to highlight values appropriate to Chinese culture, especially the spirit of sacrifice for the collective common good, the community, unity, and stability of the country.

With regard to skepticism towards Christianity, since the nineteenth century both Catholicism and Protestantism alike have been associated with Western imperialism in the minds of the Chinese people. Because of this perception, the Chinese government is concerned that religion—particularly Catholicism, which is well organized at the international level—not become a political tool for foreign interference. It draws parallels with Tibet and Xinjiang, regions allegedly associated with terrorism and separatism. Whether or not this concern is valid, that is at least how the government perceives it.

In our day, Catholic leaders often take great care to show their respect for Chinese sensibilities. During the Papal trip to Mongolia in September last year, Pope Francis took the hands of Cardinal John Tong Hon, bishop emeritus of Hong Kong, and Cardinal-elect Stephen Chow Sau-yan, SJ, bishop of Hong Kong, at the end of a public Eucharistic celebration and said: “I would like to take advantage of their presence to send a warm greeting to the noble Chinese people. I wish all the people the best, and to move forward, always progress. And I ask Chinese Catholics to be good Christians and good citizens.”²

Good Christians and Good Citizens

It was Pope Saint John Paul II who appealed to the Chinese people to be true Christians and to be authentic Chinese,³ a call now often echoed by Pope Francis. Chinese Catholics are called to witness to their fellow citizens that they are Christians and good citizens, like all others, working for the common good of the whole country and in keeping with their own culture.

“Historically, in ways that are certainly different but not in opposition to one another, China and the Catholic Church are two of the most ancient ‘institutions’ in existence and operating on the world scene: both, though in different domains—one in the political and social, the other in the religious and spiritual,”⁴ said John Paul II. He was convinced that Christianity would further uplift Chinese culture in its spiritual dimension, and vice versa, Chinese culture and its human experiences would further enrich the Church. John Paul II looked forward to a new encounter between Christianity and Chinese culture. He said, “I hope and pray that the path opened by Fr. Matteo Ricci between the East and the West, between Christianity and Chinese culture, will give rise to new instances of dialogue and reciprocal human and spiritual enrichment.”⁵

Continuity of Recent Popes: Consistent Attitude of Openness to China

There is continuity in the efforts of recent popes in pursuing a process of rapprochement between the Holy See and China, and they give special attention to China and Chinese Catholics. John Paul II initiated a spirit of Vatican II openness, a search for new language, new ardor, and new models for a new evangelization in mission lands like China, where Catholics are a small minority. The practice of legitimizing Chinese bishops originally ordained without the mandate of the pope was explicitly desired by Pope Saint John Paul II.⁶ Legitimizing them is not a cold bureaucratic act, but rather, a journey of genuinely and profoundly ecclesial discernment.

At the same time, Pope Benedict XVI desired that the unofficial community come into the open. “The clandestine condition is not a normal feature of the Church’s life,” he said. “The Holy See hopes that these legitimate Pastors may be recognized as such by governmental authorities for civil effects too—insofar as these are necessary—and that all the faithful may be able to express their faith freely in the social context in which they live.”⁷ In his 2007 letter to the Catholic Church in China, he outlined a solid theological foundation for dialogue with China, encouraging reconciliation within the Catholic Church in China and dialogue with civil authorities.

At the start of the papacy of Pope Francis, he reached out to China with a humble spirit, and there had been positive signs already. On his apostolic journey to Korea on August 14, 2014, he flew over China in a Papal flight, and in a telegram, he greeted the country’s leader and invoked his blessings upon the people. It was the first time a pope had been allowed to enter Chinese airspace. On another occasion, he recalled the moment and commented that he was moved by the idea of flying over so much culture and wisdom. Then during the in-flight press conference of his return flight to Rome, he stated, “Do I want to go to China? Of course: tomorrow! Oh, yes. We respect the Chinese people; it is just that the Church seeks freedom for its mission, for its work; no other condition. We must not forget that fundamental document for the Chinese question: the Letter to the Chinese written by Pope Benedict XVI. That Letter is still timely today. It is good to reread it. The Holy See is always open to contacts: always, because it has genuine esteem for the Chinese people.”⁸

China’s Foreign Ministry has welcomed Pope Francis’ gestures. For example, in response to the Pope’s greetings on his way to Mongolia last year, the spokesperson Wang Wenbin said that the pope’s blessing reflected “friendliness and goodwill,” noting that China and the Holy See had maintained contacts in recent years. “China is willing to continue to walk in the same direction with the Vatican, conduct constructive dialogues, enhance understanding, accumulate mutual trust, and promote the process of improving the relationship of the two sides,” said Wang.⁹

From Tense Relations to Vatican–China Icebreaker

There have been many challenges in Holy See-China relations, and yet there are opportunities, as well. China is changing rapidly. Despite exceptional economic developments in recent decades, there are unmet spiritual needs of the people. Catholics constitute less than one percent of the Chinese population. How can the Catholic Church contribute to human values and aspirations of the majority of the people? Its priorities in China should not be political or even diplomatic; rather, the main concern should be pastoral first of all. As Cardinal Parolin, the Secretary of State of the Holy See, said in an interview with Vatican Insider in early 2018, “It is not, therefore, a matter of maintaining a perennial conflict between opposing principles and structures, but of finding realistic pastoral solutions that allow Catholics to live their faith and to continue together the work of evangelization in the specific Chinese context.”¹⁰

On the political front, there have been longstanding criticisms of the Chinese government on issues of religious freedom. There was open talk of excommunicating some bishops of the Church in China in 2012. ¹¹ However, there was no great doctrinal issue at stake. Italian historian Agostino Giovagnoli has pointed out that all popes, from Pius XII to Francis, have always refused to use the word “schism” in connection with the situation of the Chinese Church. Rather, they have emphasized healing the wounds caused by the illegitimate consecration of bishops, and it would be absurd to do otherwise.¹² History taught us that such wounds are hard to heal.

Upon his election, Pope Francis renewed efforts to promote dialogue with China. As a result, in 2018, he was able to make a historic agreement with China on the nomination of Chinese bishops. In a conference in June 2019 at the Chinese Academy of Social Science (CASS) in Beijing, Fr. Antonio Spadaro, SJ, said, “Rather, it is an important step on a journey of well-thought-out steps taken by both parties.”¹³ This took concrete shape in the granting of full communion to the Chinese bishops who had been ordained without pontifical mandate, along with an agreement concerning the way to approve future bishops.

Fr. Spadaro went further, saying that in current agreements between the Holy See and some Western democratic countries, there are still rules on the power of veto of the governments on the nomination of bishops, and in some countries, civil governments still have the right of consultation. In the process, some wonder whether the Holy See has ceded too much of its authority to ordain bishops to the Chinese government. The question is posed incorrectly. The Church does not give up its authority to ordain bishops. Rather, this agreement is part of a long history of the search for agreements with political authorities on the nomination of bishops. In a Q&A section later at the Jesuit-run Beijing Center for Chinese Studies on the campus of the University of International Business and Economics, Professor Ren Ranli of CASS even doubted who ceded more to whom in China-Holy See relations. He said, according to some of us Chinese scholars, the attitude of recent popes to approach and get closer to China has been consistent, but it is the first time that China responded and conceded to make an agreement; this truly constitutes a big step from China and a decision made by its top leadership. Therefore, there is indeed a big concession from the Chinese part.

Concrete Facts of Episcopal Ordinations Following the Provisional Agreement

Just to cite some concrete results after signing of the Agreement: First, by signing the “Provisional Agreement on the Appointment of Bishops” on September 22, 2018, Chinese authorities recognized the role and involvement of the Pope in appointing bishops in China. Considering the Holy See as an authority from outside, this concession from Chinese authorities is quite exceptional. Therefore, the Agreement in 2018 is indeed a historical milestone.

On September 22, 2018, with the signing of the Agreement, Pope Francis readmitted into full ecclesial communion eight Chinese bishops, who were ordained without pontifical mandate. They are Bishop Joseph Guo Jincai, Bishop Joseph Huang Bingzhang, Bishop Paul Lei Shiyin, Bishop Joseph Liu Xinhong, Bishop Joseph Ma Yinglin, Bishop Joseph Yue Fusheng, Bishop Vincent Zhan Silu, and Bishop Anthony Tu Shihua, OFM who, before his death on January 4, 2017, had expressed the desire to be reconciled with the Apostolic See.

On the other side, from January 22, 2019 to August 18, 2020, seven bishops secretly ordained without recognition by the Chinese government have taken public office or undergone “a ceremony of officialization” denoting recognition by the civil authorities. They are Bishop Zhuang Jianjian of Shantou Diocese, Guangdong Province, Bishop Jin Lugang of Nanyang, Henan, Bishop Guo Xijin of Mindong, Fujian, Bishop Lin Jiashan of Fuzhou, Fujian, Bishop Li Huiyuan of Fengxiang, Shaanxi, Bishop Ma Cunguo of Shuozhou, Shanxi, Bishop Jin Yangke of Ningbo, Zhejiang.¹⁴ In a recent development, on August 27, 2024, Bishop Melchior Shi Hongzhen has been officially recognized for civil purposes as the Bishop of Tianjin, and the Holy See expressed appreciation for this “positive outcome.”¹⁵

Each year from 2019 to 2021 there were two bishops ordained within the framework of the Provisional Agreement. In 2019 Bishop Yao Shun of Jining, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and Bishop Xu Hongwei of Hanzhong, Shaanxi, were ordained; in 2020 Bishop Chen Tianhao of Qingdao, Shandong, Bishop Liu Genzhu of Linfen, Shanxi; in 2021 Bishop Li Hui of Pingliang, Gansu, Bishop Cui Qingqi of Wuhan, Hubei. Notably, Bishop Yao Shun was one of the two Chinese bishops who participated at the 2023 Synod in Rome.

Due to COVID-19 restrictions, face-to-face meetings between Vatican representatives and Chinese representatives became less frequent. In November 2022, Bishop Peng Weizhao of Yijiang, Jiangxi, was recognized and installed as auxiliary bishop of Nanchang, Jiangxi, without the involvement of the Holy See. Then on April 3, 2023, the Chinese authorities transferred Bishop Shen Bin to Shanghai, again without involving the Holy See in this decision.

Soon thereafter, from April 17–21, 2023, Bishop Stephen Chow visited the Beijing Diocese, the first Hong Kong bishop to do so after the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997. In an interview later with Fr. Spadaro, editor-in-chief of La Civiltà Cattolica, he shared his opinion with regard to the Provisional Agreement, “It is not dead as some seem to have suggested. But the discrepancies of views between the two sides on the assignment of bishops to other dioceses could be a factor to be better understood.” Therefore, he suggests, “if more regular and in-depth talks were held in the future, perhaps clarifications would result.”¹⁶ As a matter of fact, three months later, the Holy See “rectified the canonical irregularity,” as Cardinal Parolin said, for the “greater good of the diocese” and announced the appointment of Msgr. Shen by Pope Francis in July 2023.¹⁷

Not only is the Provisional Agreement not dead; it is moving ahead vigorously with three episcopal ordinations at the beginning of this year, all within one week.  Bishop Wang Yuesheng for the diocese of Zhengzhou, Henan Province, was ordained on January 25; Bishop Sun Wenjun was ordained for the new diocese di Weifang, Shandong, on January 29; and Bishop Wu Yishun for the diocese of Shaowu (Minbei), Fujian, was ordained on January 31.

In the case of Bishop Sun, his ordination also involved the formal creation of the new diocese of Weifang, with its newly defined ecclesiastical boundaries.¹⁸ Such diocesan restructuring had not happened since 1949, and it involved the Holy See and the Chinese government, in compliance with the Agreement. In the case of Bishop Wu, the Holy See Press Office also announced that his appointment was as set out in the framework of the Provisional Agreement.¹⁹ It transpires not only that the episcopal ordinations were done according to the Agreement between both sides, but this process also involved ironing out issues with regard to defining the boundaries of diocese such as Shaowu (Minbei).

Evaluation: Setbacks and Clarifications to Go Forward

Due to urbanization and migration since 1949, much has changed in China as far as administrative divisions and demography are concerned. In the records of the Holy See, the ecclesial territories in China and the number of dioceses, archdioceses, apostolic prefectures, and ecclesiastical administrations remain as listed before 1949; they need to be updated, and in some cases redefined. In his letter to Chinese Catholics in 2007, Pope Benedict XVI already said that “the Holy See is prepared to address the entire question of the circumscriptions and ecclesiastical provinces.”²⁰

Since the Agreement was signed in 2018, two setbacks arose due to the movement of two bishops made without consulting the Holy See. In the case of Bishop Peng, a dispute arose in connection with whether the province of Jiangxi has four dioceses (as recorded before 1949) or only one diocese (as recognized by government authority). If there is only one, the installation of Bishop Peng as the auxiliary bishop of Nanchang would not be considered a movement, but rather the officialization of his status as bishop as recognized by the government. In the case of the movement of Bishop Shen Bin, further clarification was needed in order to move ahead in the spirit of Agreement. Subsequent approved episcopal ordinations proved that things are now moving ahead in the right direction.

I have been teaching at the Catholic national seminary in Beijing and other seminaries in China as a visiting professor. In the national seminary, there are at present 99 seminarians in both theology and philosophy, 58 sisters taking three-year courses, 24 to 30 sisters on average taking two-month updating courses, 18 priests and nuns are taking up graduate studies, and additional students studying foreign languages in preparation for study abroad.

As in the seminary of the Beijing Diocese headed by Bishop Li Shan, there are at the moment 60 seminarians. I can see that the Church in Beijing is developing, and there is a steady increase of vocations, partly due to the relatively smooth relationship with civil authority. The youth and the laity are active in the parishes of the Beijing Diocese. The diocese registered 500 baptisms this year up through Easter time. Even in the diocese of Shanghai, there had been 470 baptisms registered this year up to Easter time after the arrival of Bishop Shen Bin, noticeably the highest in recent years.²¹ My impression is that the fewer controversies, the better for the local church. Dialogue between Church institutions and civil authority is necessary to move forward.

Another positive effect of the Agreement is that there is more peace of mind within and among various Catholic communities. As a result, Church communities are able to give more attention to gospel testimony and love of neighbor, rather than wasting too much time in internal conflicts. The voice of the “silent majority”—who more properly represents China today—should be heard, and their needs should be watched. As Pope Francis appealed, Chinese Catholics are called to give united testimony before the eyes of the larger population.

People outside of China are often influenced by an “old mindset.” What is this old mindset? The situation of religious practice in China, including for Catholics, can be complex and varies by region and context. The perception of persecution may stem from personal experiences, reports from human rights organizations, and international media coverage. It is important to approach this issue with an understanding of the broader sociopolitical context in China and recognize that experiences can vary widely among individuals and communities. Still, some interpret the Chinese context from a Western perspective.

Some portrayals of Chinese policy are politically motivated and are manipulated by certain political entities that feel threatened by the rise of China. In fact, this is the current dynamic in China: The government does not change, but development policies are constantly changing to meet the needs that arise. Policies can change very swiftly.

Just to cite a case in point, starting December last year, China unilaterally implemented a visa-free policy of 15 days for ordinary people from some European countries: France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain. This policy later expanded to Switzerland, Ireland, Hungary, Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Poland, a total of 12 European countries. China also implemented a visa-free transit policy open to 54 eligible countries, including the USA, for a six-day stay in many Chinese cities facilitating tourism, people-to-people exchanges, and the promotion of international cooperation.

The system of government, in a country like China and many others, has to be determined by the history of the country, its culture and the degree of economic development.

Historically, in Europe, spiritual or religious authority was above temporal authority; Charlemagne was crowned by the pope, and even Napoleon was, in a certain sense. In Confucian China, it was just the opposite; the realm had many different ethnic minorities (55 at present), and with respect to the different religions, the mandarins had the role of governing and administering the regions entrusted to them. Therefore traditionally, temporal authority was above religious authority. This is deeply rooted culturally and difficult to alter overnight, even if one wanted to.

Religious Freedom through Constructive Dialogue for World Peace

The Provisional Agreement between the Holy See and China marked a significant breakthrough after decades of tension and lack of formal relations between the two entities. This agreement provided a framework, focused primarily on the appointment of bishops in China, a contentious issue that had been a stumbling block in relations between the Chinese government and the Holy See.

By reaching this agreement, the Vatican gained a say in the appointment of bishops in China, while the Chinese government acknowledged the pope’s authority in the Catholic Church. This represented a significant step towards the normalization of relations between the two entities and opened up possibilities for increased cooperation on various issues of mutual interest.

The Agreement also has faced criticism and skepticism from some quarters, particularly from those concerned about religious freedom in China. However, it precisely also aims to improve religious freedom for Catholics in China. By formalizing the relationship between the Chinese government and the Holy See, the Agreement provides a framework for addressing other issues related to religious freedom, such as the recognition of Catholic churches and the protection of Catholics’ rights to practice their faith without interference.

Catholics in China, though small in number, could contribute to the country by being a leaven of love for society, but only when Catholics are reconciled among themselves can they give testimony of love and service to society. The keys are reconciliation among Catholics, testimony of unity, constructive dialogue with civil authority, and friendship with people at large.

The Agreement also has broader implications beyond China and the Holy See. It was seen as a reflection of China’s increasing engagement with the international community and its desire for greater acceptance on the world stage. It is a very positive sign that the Holy See and China are engaging responsibly in a constructive dialogue. In this regard, Pope Francis could be a game-changer for international relations. A papal visit to China will be much desired, God willing. We are in a world today with so many divides, the improved relationships and the dialogue between these two ancient institutions of the world could pave the way and contribute to world peace.

1. Cf. Second Vatican Council. “Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, Gaudium et Spes, December 7, 1965,” Vatican website, 1965, sections 1–10, https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html.
2. Francis, Apostolic Journey of Pope Francis to Mongolia, “Remarks of His Holiness Pope Francis at the Conclusion of Holy Mass,” Ulaanbaatar, September 3, 2023, Vatican website, https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2023/september/documents/20230902-mongolia-autorita.html.
3. John Paul II, “Address to the Chinese Catholic Communities in Asia,” Manila, February 18, 1981, sections 3-4, Vatican website, https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1981/february/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19810218_manila-comunita-cattoliche-cinesi.html.
4. John Paul II, “Message to Participants of the International Conference Commemorating the Fourth Centenary of the Arrival in Beijing of Fr. Matteo Ricci,” Vatican, October 24, 2001, section 6, Vatican website, https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/2001/october/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20011024_matteo-ricci.html.
5. John Paul II, “Message to Participants of the International Conference Commemorating the Fourth Centenary of the Arrival in Beijing of Fr. Matteo Ricci,” section 7.
6. Sergio Centofanti and Fr. Bernd Hagenkord, SJ, “Dialogue with China: Apostolic Succession and the Legitimacy of Bishops,” Vatican News, July 17, 2018, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2018-07/dialogue-china-holy-see-apostolic-succession-legitimacy-bishops.html.
7. Benedict XVI, Letter of the Holy Father to the Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China, Rome, May 27, 2007, section 8, Vatican website, https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/letters/2007/documents/hf_ben-xvi_let_20070527_china.html.
8. Francis, Apostolic Journey of Pope Francis to Korea on the Occasion of the 6th Asian Youth Day, “In-flight Press Conference of His Holiness Pope Francis from Korea to Rome,” Papal Flight, August 18, 2014, Vatican website, https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2014/august/documents/papa-francesco_20140818_corea-conferenza-stampa.html.
9. Linda Bordoni, “Pope Arrives in Mongolia to Visit ‘People of a Great Culture,’” Vatican News, September 1, 2023, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2023-09/pope-arrival-mongolia-apostolic-visit.html.
10. Gianni Valente, “Parolin, ‘Why We Are in Dialogue with China,’” La Stampa, February 1, 2018, https://www.lastampa.it/vatican-insider/en/2018/02/01/news/parolin-why-we-are-in-dialogue-with-china-1.33974144/.
11. For some examples, please refer to “Communiqué of the Press Office of the Holy See: Episcopal Ordination at Chengde (Province of Hebei, Mainland China),” Agenzia Fides, November 24, 2010, https://www.fides.org/en/news/27851; “Vatican—Declaration of the Holy See with Reference to the Episcopal Ordination in the Diocese of Shantou (Province of Guangdong, Mainland China),” Agenzia Fides, July 16, 2011,  https://www.fides.org/en/news/29497-VATICAN_Declaration_of_the_Holy_See_with_reference_to_the_Episcopal_Ordination_in_the_Diocese_of_Shantou_Province_of_Guangdong_Mainland_China.
12. Agostino Giovagnoli, “Cina, l’unità e non la nostalgia strada del futuro dei cattolici (China, unity and not nostalgia the way of the future of Catholics),” Avvenire, January 29, 2020,  https://www.avvenire.it/opinioni/pagine/cina-lunit-e-non-la-nostalgia-strada-del-futuro-dei-cattolici.
13. Antonio Spadaro, “Una prospettiva sulle relazioni tra Cina e Santa Sede: Crescere nell’amicizia (Growing in friendship: A perspective on Sino-Vatican relations),” L’Osservatore Romano, June 27, 2019.
14. Ye Sheng, “中梵臨時協議帶來的成果 (Fruits Brought about by the China-Vatican Provisional Agreement),” Holy Spirit Studies Centre of Hong Kong, October 24, 2022, https://hsstudyc.org.hk/%E4%B8%AD%E6%A2%B5%E8%87%A8%E6%99%82%E5%8D%94%E8%AD%B0%E5%B8%B6%E4%BE%86%E7%9A%84%E6%88%90%E6%9E%9C/.
15. “Holy See Press Office Communiqué, 27.08.2024,” Vatican News. “Holy See welcomes ‘positive outcome’ of Chinese Bishop’s official recognition.” Holy See Press Office website, August 27, 2024, https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/2024/08/27/240827a.html.
16. “Bishop of Hong Kong: ‘Bridge church’ Challenged to Connect Diverse Parts,” Vatican News, May 12, 2023, accessed October 3, 2024, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/church/news/2023-05/bishop-of-hong-kong-bridge-church-challenged-to-connect-parts.html.
17. “Cardinal Parolin: “Pope Appoints Shanghai Bishop for Good of Diocese and Dialogue,” Vatican News, July 15, 2023, accessed October 3, 2024, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2023-07/cardinal-parolin-pope-appoints-shanghai-bishop-good-dialogue.html.
18. “Bishop Consecrated for New Diocese of Weifang, China,” Vatican News,January 29, 2024, accessed October 3, 2024, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2024-01/bishop-consecrated-for-new-diocese-of-weifang-china.html.
19. “China: Consecration of the New Bishop of Shaowu,” Vatican News,January 31, 2024, accessed October 3, 2024, https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2024-01/china-consecration-new-bishop-shaowu-minbei-fujian.html.
20. Benedict XVI, Letter of the Holy Father to the Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China, Vatican website, May 27, 2007, section 11, https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/letters/2007/documents/hf_ben-xvi_let_20070527_china.html.
21. “More than 400 Catechumens in the Diocese of Shanghai Received the Sacrament of Initiation,” Catholic Shanghai Diocese website, April 24, 2024, www.catholicsh.org/LinkList.aspx?InfoCategoryID=18.